Modernisation, in theory, is possible if after the takeoff period both society and economy will be able to sustain their internalised growth and to adopt changes answering internal and external challenges. The fact that Hungary could not embark on this path, even after 150 years of attempts, can be explained by world system analysis. Development and backwardness are two sides of the same coin: Hungary was – and remains – on the semi-periphery of the capitalist world economy. It is our luck that falling further down is not so easy either.

According to the Chinese Marxist expert, who used to believe in free market, the capitalist system is under pressure of permanent accumulation thus it is not compatible with the sustainability of the ecologic system of the globe. Climate stabilising measures would increase the costs of capitalists, would reduce the growth of capital accumulation thus very few countries are willing to undertake serious emission cuts and there is no hegemonic power that would keep the system in check. Substantial social changes are needed.

Marxian theory highlights the relationship between political divisions in society and production, and is searching the connection of this relationship to the forms of social consciousness. This study is the introductory chapter of the 2nd volume of the recent monograph of Mészáros dedicated to this complex problem. According to the author, the crux of the matter for the prevailing order is that outsourcing the antagonistic contradictions of the capital system – including its damage caused to nature – does not solve its immanent problems.